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Kelp forests are underwater areas with a high density of kelp. They are recognized as one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth.〔Mann, K.H. 1973. Seaweeds: their productivity and strategy for growth. Science 182: 975-981.〕 Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds. Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout temperate and polar coastal oceans.〔 In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in tropical waters near Ecuador.〔Graham, M.H., B.P. Kinlan, L.D. Druehl, L.E. Garske, and S. Banks. 2007. Deep-water kelp refugia as potential hotspots of tropical marine diversity and productivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104: 16576-16580.〕 Physically formed by brown macroalgae of the order Laminariales, kelp forests provide a unique three-dimensional habitat for marine organisms〔Christie, H., Jørgensen, N.M., Norderhaug, K.M., Waage-Nielsen, E., 2003. Species distribution and habitat exploitation of fauna associated with kelp (Laminaria hyperborea) along the Norwegian coast. Journal of Marine Biological Association UK 83, 687-699.〕 and are a source for understanding many ecological processes. Over the last century, they have been the focus of extensive research, particularly in trophic ecology, and continue to provoke important ideas that are relevant beyond this unique ecosystem. For example, kelp forests can influence coastal oceanographic patterns〔Jackson, G.A. and C.D. Winant. 1983. Effect of a kelp forest on coastal currents. Continental Shelf Report 2: 75-80.〕 and provide many ecosystem services.〔Steneck, R.S., M.H. Graham, B.J. Bourque, D. Corbett, J.M. Erlandson, J.A. Estes and M.J. Tegner. 2002. Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environmental Conservation 29: 436-459.〕 However, the influence of humans has often contributed to kelp forest degradation. Of particular concern are the effects of overfishing nearshore ecosystems, which can release herbivores from their normal population regulation and result in the over-grazing of kelp and other algae.〔Sala, E., C.F. Bourdouresque and M. Harmelin-Vivien. 1998. Fishing, trophic cascades, and the structure of algal assemblages: evaluation of an old but untested paradigm. Oikos 82: 425-439.〕 This can rapidly result in transitions to barren landscapes where relatively few species persist.〔Dayton, P.K. 1985a. Ecology of kelp communities. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 16: 215-245.〕〔Norderhaug, K.M., Christie, H., 2009. Sea urchin grazing and kelp re-vegetation in the NE Atlantic. Marine Biology Research 5, 515-528〕 The implementation of marine protected areas (MPAs) is one management strategy useful for addressing such issues since it may limit the impacts of fishing and buffer the ecosystem from additive effects of other environmental stressors. == Kelp == (詳細はmarine algae belonging to the taxonomic order Laminariales (Phylum: Heterokontophyta). Though not considered a taxonomically diverse order, kelps are highly diverse structurally and functionally.〔 The most widely recognized species are the giant kelps (''Macrocystis spp.''), although there are numerous other genera such as ''Laminaria'', ''Ecklonia'', ''Lessonia'', ''Alaria'' and ''Eisenia''. A wide range of sea life use kelp forests for protection or food, including fish, particularly rockfish, and many invertebrates such as amphipods, shrimp, marine snails, bristle worms and brittle stars. Many marine mammals and birds are also found, including seals, sea lions, whales, sea otters, gulls, terns, snowy egrets, great blue herons, cormorants, as well as some shore birds.〔(Kelp forests provide habitat for a variety of invertebrates, fish, marine mammals, and birds ) NOAA. Updated 11 January 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2014.〕 Frequently considered an ecosystem engineer, kelp provides a physical substrate and habitat for kelp forest communities.〔Jones, C.G., J. H. Lawton and M. Shachak. 1997. Positive and negative effects of organisms as physical ecosystem engineers. Ecology 78: 1946-1957.〕 In algae (Kingdom: Protista), the body of an individual organism is known as a thallus rather than as a plant (Kingdom: Plantae). The morphological structure of a kelp thallus is defined by three basic structural units:〔 : * The holdfast is a root-like mass that anchors the thallus to the sea floor, though unlike true roots it is not responsible for absorbing and delivering nutrients to the rest of the thallus; : * The stipe is analogous to a plant stalk, extending vertically from the holdfast and providing a support framework for other morphological features; : * The fronds are leaf- or blade-like attachments extending from the stipe, sometimes along its full length, and are the sites of nutrient uptake and photosynthetic activity. In addition, many kelp species have pneumatocysts, or gas-filled bladders, usually located at the base of fronds near the stipe. These structures provide the necessary buoyancy for kelp to maintain an upright position in the water column. The environmental factors necessary for kelp to survive include hard substrate (usually rock or sand), high nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus), and light (minimum annual irradiance dose > 50 E m−2〔Druehl, L.D. 1981. The distribution of Laminariales in the North Pacific with reference to environmental influences. Proceedings of the International Congress on Systematic Evolution and Biology 2: 248-256.〕). Especially productive kelp forests tend to be associated with areas of significant oceanographic upwelling, a process that delivers cool nutrient-rich water from depth to the ocean’s mixed surface layer.〔 Water flow and turbulence facilitate nutrient assimilation across kelp fronds throughout the water column.〔Wheeler, W.N. 1980. Effect of boundary layer transport on the fixation of carbon by the giant kelp ''Macrocystis pyrifera''. Marine Biology 56: 103-110.〕 Water clarity affects the depth to which sufficient light can be transmitted. In ideal conditions, giant kelp (''Macrocystis spp.'') can grow as much as 30-60 centimeters vertically per day. Some species such as ''Nereocystis'' are annual while others like ''Eisenia'' are perennial, living for more than 20 years.〔Steneck, R.S. and M.N. Dethier. 1994. A functional group approach to the structure of algal-dominated communities. Oikos 69: 476-498.〕 In perennial kelp forests, maximum growth rates occur during upwelling months (typically spring and summer) and die-backs correspond to reduced nutrient availability, shorter photoperiods and increased storm frequency.〔 Kelps are primarily associated with temperate and arctic waters worldwide. Of the more dominant species, ''Laminaria'' is mainly associated with both sides of the Atlantic Ocean and the coasts of China and Japan; ''Ecklonia'' is found in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa; and ''Macrocystis'' occurs throughout the northeastern and southeastern Pacific Ocean, Southern Ocean archipelagos, and in patches around Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.〔 The region with the greatest diversity of kelps (>20 species) is the northeastern Pacific, from north of San Francisco, California, to the Aleutian Islands, Alaska. Although kelp forests are unknown in tropical surface waters, a few species of ''Laminaria'' have been known to occur exclusively in tropical deep waters.〔Joly, A.B. and E.C. Oliveira Filho. 1967. Two Brazilian ''Laminarias''. Instituto de Pesquisas da Marinha 4: 1-7.〕〔Petrov, J.E., M.V. Suchovejeva and G.V. Avdejev. 1973. New species of the genus ''Laminaria'' from the Philippines Sea. Nov Sistem. Nizch. Rast. 10: 59-61.〕 This general absence of kelp from the tropics is believed to be mostly due to insufficient nutrient levels associated with warm, oligotrophic waters.〔 One recent study spatially overlaid the requisite physical parameters for kelp with mean oceanographic conditions has produced a model predicting the existence of subsurface kelps throughout the tropics worldwide to depths of 200 m. For a hotspot in the Galapagos Islands, the local model was improved with fine-scale data and tested; the research team found thriving kelp forests in all 8 of their sampled sites, all of which had been predicted by the model and thus validated their approach. This suggests that their global model might actually be fairly accurate and if so, kelp forests would be prolific in tropical subsurface waters worldwide.〔 The importance of this contribution has been rapidly acknowledged within the scientific community and prompts an entirely new trajectory of kelp forest research, particularly emphasizing the potential for a spatial refuge from climate change also the explanations to evolutionary patterns of kelps worldwide.〔Santelices, B. 2007. The discovery of kelp forests in deep-water habitats of tropical regions. Proceedings of the NationalAwan Riak Academy of Sciences 104: 19163-19164.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「kelp forest」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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